1 

Sonderabclruck  aus:  Internal.  Bevue  d.  ges.  Hydrobiol.  u.  Hydrogr.,  Bd.  V,  H.  4. 


Recent  American  literature  on  Freshwater  biology. 

By  C.  Juday  (Madison). 

216)  Doolittle,  A.  A.,  Descriptions  of  Recently  Discovered  Cladocera 
from  New  England.  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  1911,  vol.  XLl,  p.  161 — 170, 
pi.  13—19. 

The  author  gives  a  detailed  description  of  Parophyoxus  tubulatus, 
which  represents  a  new  genus  as  well  as  a  new  species,  and  Chydorus 
bicornutus,  nov.  sp. 

217)  Greene,  C.  W.,  The  Migration  of  Salmon  in  the  Columbia  River. 
Bull.  Bur.  Fisheries  1911,  vol.  XXIX,  p.  131—148. 

In  a  preliminary  experiment,  59  specimens  of  salmon,  representing 
3  different  species  (25  Oncorhynchus  tschawy tscha ,  16  0.  kisutch, 


450 


Laiiderreferate  (Nordamerika). 


18  Salmo  gairdiieri)  were  obtained  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river, 
were  marked  with  aluminum  tags,  and  were  then  liberated  at  the  point 
where  they  were  captured.  Only  17  individuals,  however,  were  retaken  and 
reported.  From  the  preliminary  data,  the  author  reaches  the  tentative  con¬ 
clusions  a)  that  salmon  may  take  from  30  to  40  days  to  pass  through  the 
brackish  waters  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  considerable  time  being  spent  in 
swimming  back  and  forth  in  tide  water  during  acclimatization  to  fresh- water; 
b)  that,  after  reaching  fresh  water,  0.  kisutch  and  S.  gairdneri  ascend 
the  liver  at  an  average  speed  of  from  9,5  km  to  12,0  km  per  clay. 

218)  Haiikiiisoii,  T.  L.,  An  Ecological  Study  of  the  Fish  of  a  Small 

Stream.  Trans  Ill.  Acad.  Sc.  1910,  vol.  Ill,  p.  1 — 8,  1  pi. 

The  author  is  studying  the  fish  fauna  of  a  small  stream  which  he  de¬ 
signates  as  Campus  creek.  Throughout  most  of  its  course  the  stream  is 
broken  into  a  series  of  pools  with  intervening  narrows  or  broad  shoals.  The 
average  depth  of  the  pools  is  a  little  more  than  half  a'  meter.  Seventeen 
species  of  fish  have  been  found  in  the  creek;  but  only  seven  are  common 
and  permanent  inhabitants. 

The  chief  problem  is  to  determine  the  type  of  habitat  preferred  by  each 
species  and  its  relation  to  the  surroundings. 

The  author  finds  it  difficult  to  determine  which  are  the  preferred  habi¬ 
tats  because  there  are  not  only  annual  and  seasonal  variations  in  local  dis¬ 
tribution,  but  also  daily  and  even  hourly  ones.  The  more  obvious  factors 
affecting  local  distribution  are  barriers,  the  current,  food,  temperature  and 
shore  vegetation. 

A  barrier  at  the  mouth  of  Campus  creek  prevents  the  entrance  of  fish 
from  the  stream  into  which  it  flows,  except  during  unusually  high  water. 
Leaf  dams  sometimes  form  in  the  stream  at  various  points  and  serve  as 
barriers  to  upward  migration.  The  common  species  of  fish  occupy  the  pools 
during  the  daytime  but  the  shoals  with  rapidly  moving  water  constitute 
their  cheif  nocturnal  habitats.  The  current  also  affects  distribution  indi¬ 
rectly  by.  affecting  the  bottom  topography  of  the  stream.  The  direct  effects 
of  food  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  on  distribution,  have  not  yet  been 
worked  out.  The  shore  vegetation  contributes  to  the  formation  of  overhan¬ 
ging  banks  which  afford  hiding  places. 

219)  Morgan,  Aim.  H.,  May-flies  of  Fall  Creek.  Ann.  Entomo.  Soc.  Amer. 
1911,  vol.  IV,  p.  93—119,  pi.  6—12. 

Fall  creek,  which  forms  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  campus  at  Cor¬ 
nell  University,  has  an  abundant  May-fly  fauna. 

The  author  studied  represenatives  of  17  different  genera,  especial  atten¬ 
tion  being  given  to  the  life  history,  to  the  habits  of  both  imagoes  and 
nymphs,  and  to  the  structural  adaptations  of  various  nymphs.  The  change 
of  nymphs  to  sub-imagoes  was  observed  in  Blasturus  cupidus  Say;  tlie 
mating  flight  of  Ephemera  simulans  Walker,  Blasturus  cupidus  Say, 
and  Leptophlebia  praepedita  Etn;  the  egg-laying  of  Baetis  pygmca 
Hagen;  and  the  burrowing  movements  of  Hexagenia  variabilis  Eaton. 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


451 


The  nymphs  of  the  Heptageninae  are  found  only  in  the  rapid  waters  and 
they  show  structural  adaptations  which  i  reduce  their  resistance  to  the  cur¬ 
rent.  No  male  specimens  of  Ameletus  ludens  Need  were  found  and  it  is 
suggested  that  this  species  may  present  a  case  of  ])arthenogenesis. 

220)  Smith,  B.  Gr.,  The  Nests  and  Larvae  of  Necturus.  Biol.  Bull.  1911, 
vol.  XX,  p.  191—200. 

The  eggs  of  Necturus  were  found  attached  singly  to  the  bottom  of 
large  flat  stones  in  Lake  Monona  where  the  water  was  1  m  to  1,5  m  deep. 
The  eggs  averaged  about  66  per  nest  and  they  hatched  either  the  latter  part 
of  June  or  early  in  July. 

In  color  the  larvae  are  dark  brown  on  the  dorsal  and  lateral  surfaces 
with  a  conspicious  light  yellow  dorsolateral  longitudinal  stripe.  The  ventral 
surface  is  pale  yellow,  almost  transparent.  The  color  pattern  reaches  its 
maximum  development  in  specimens  having  a  body  length  of  about  55  mm; 
from  this  time  on  there  is  a  gradual  change  to  adult  color  characters. 

2!21)  Forbes,  S.  A.,  Chemical  and  Biological  Investigations  on  the 
Illinois  River,  Midsummer  1911.  Ill.  State  Lab.  of  Nat.  Hist.  1911, 
p.  1—9. 

Investigations  were  undertaken  to  learn  as  much  as  possible  concerning 
the  breeding  grounds  and  habits  of  the  more  important  fishes  of  the  central 
part  of  the  Illinois  river.  The  most  important  breeding  ground  discovered 
has  an  area  of  about  240  ha  and  careful  estimates  show  that  carp  may 
deposit  about  one  and  a  half  billion  eggs  here  during  a  single  favorable 
season.  A  large  amount  of  decaying  organic  matter  is  found  on  this  bree¬ 
ding  ground  and  fungous  growths  derived  from  this  source  cause  a  loss  of 
90  to  98  per  cent,  of  the  eggs.  The  largemouth  black  bass  breeds  to  a 
certain  extend  on  this  ground  also  but  the  loss  among  its  eggs  from  fun¬ 
gous  growths  is  not  so  great  because  this  fish  builds  a  nest,  clearing  away 
the  rubbish  before  the  eggs  are  deposited. 

The  quantity  of  plankton  found  in  the  river  in  1909  was  between  two 
and  three  times  as  much  as  it  was  previous  to  the  opening  of  the  drainage 
canal.  Through  this  drainage  canal  and  through  the.Des  Plaines  river,  the 
Illinois  river  receives  a  very  large  amount  of  sewage  from  Chicago  and  its 
suburbs,  and  investigations  were  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  this  on  the 
dissolved  oxygen  content  of  the  water.  In  July  and  August  1911  it  was 
found  that  more  than  40  km  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  Illinois  river  ser¬ 
ved  as  a  septic  basin,  containing  a  large  amount  of  sewage  in  an  advanced 
state  of  decomposition.  The  gases  arising  from  this  decomposing  material 
were  identical  in  composition  with  those  obtained  from  septic  tanks  of  se¬ 
wage  systems. 

Only  a  small  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  was  found  in  this  portion  of 
the  river,  the  averages  being  from  7,5  to  9,8  per  cent,  of  the  amount  re¬ 
quired  for  saturation,  with  a  minimum  of  0,5  per  cent.,  and  a  maximum 
of  21.  No  fishes  were  found  in  this  section  of  the  river.  At  the  lower  end 
of  this  section  the  water  flowed  over  a  dam  about  4  m  high  which  helped 


452 


Laiiderreferate  (Nordamerika). 


to  aerate  it,  yet  a  little  more  than  a  kilometer  below  this  dam  the  water 
contained  only  24,8  per  cent,  of  the  oxygen  necessary  for  saturation.  From 
lliis  point  on  down  the  river  as  far  as  tests  were  made,  about  108  km. 
below  the  dam,  the  dissolved  oxygen  gradually  increased  in  amount,  reaching 
a  maximum  of  only  49  per  cent,  of  saturation,  howewer,  at  the  point  far¬ 
thest  down  stream  where  samples  were  taken. 

After  the  work  had  been  in  progress  for  some  time  a  rain  fell  which 
was  heavy  enough  to  cause  the  water  to  rise  a  few  centimeters.  This  flood 
water  brought  in  a  large  amount  of  decomposable  matter  besides  the  sewage, 
and  the  decay  of  this  additional  organic  matter  caused  a  decrease  of  about 
50  per  cent,  in  the  oxygen  content  of  the  water. 

222)  Scott,  Will,  The  Fauna  of  a  solution  Pond.  Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sc. 

1910  (1911),  p.  395—448. 

The  pond  on  which  this  faunal  study  was  made  is  situated  near  the 
crest  of  an  old  monadnock  and  is  isolated  from  similar  bodies  of  water, 
the  nearest  being  more  than  3  km.  distant.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  being  about 
21m.  long  by  17  m.  wide,  and  has  a  maximum  depth  of  a  little  more  than 
1  m.  The  basin  occupied  by  the  pond  was  formed  by  the  solution  of  lime¬ 
stone;  the  outlet  of  the  original  sinkhole  became  obstructed  and  the  basin 
filled  with  water,  forming  a  pond.  This  body  of  water  is  gradually  beco¬ 
ming  extinct,  the  maximum  depth  being  a  little  more  than  2  m.  in  1887. 
The  deposition  of  plant  debris  and  silt  are  the  chief  factors  concerned  in  tlie 
destruction  of  the  pond. 

The  observations  on  this  pond  were  made  between  October,  1908  and 
May,  1911.  Plankton  catches  were  made  by  means  of  a  pump  and  hose. 
The  protozoa  were  represented  by  a  number  of  forms,  the  rhizopod  Difflu- 
gia  and  flagellate  Euglena  being  most  abundant.  The  former  reached  a 
maximum  number  of  398  per  liter  and  Euglena  viridis,  275.  Ten  species 
of  rotifers  were  found,  —  Anuraea  aculeata,  Hydatina  senta,  and 
Monostyla  lunaris  being  the  most  abundant  forms.  The  rotifer  population 
was  small  in  winter  and  showed  a  marked  development  during  the  latter 
part  of  April.  Cyclops  showed  two  maxima,  a  slight  one  in  April  and  an 
enormous  one  in  August.  Simocephalus  vetulus  was  numerous  at  all 
seasons.  Alona  quadrangularis  was  present  in  small  numbers  in  1910, 
and  a  few  Daphne  pulex  were  found  in  spring  and  early  summer. 

A  number  of  aquatic  insects  and  aquatic  insect  larvae  were  found  from 
time  to  time  and  three  species  of  gastropods  were  present. 

The  summer  of  1908  was  very  dry  and  during  the  drouth  the  pond 
dried  up,  thus  giving  the  author  an  opportunity  to  study  the  development  of 
its  new  fauna.  The  wind  and  water-birds  are  considered  as  very  important  fac¬ 
tors  in  restocking  the  pond. 

The  food  relations  of  the  various  forms  were  studied.  Material  was 
collected  from  other  solution  ponds  for  comparison,  but  this  part  of  the  work 
has  not  been  completed. 

223)  Sliellord,  V.  E.,  Ecological  Succession.  I.  Stream  Fishes  and 

the  Method  of  Physiographic  Analysis.  Biol.  Bull.  19 1 1 ,  vol.  XXI, 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


458 


p.  9 — 35.  —  II.  Pond  Fishes.  Ibid.,  p.  127 — 151.  —  III.  A  recon¬ 
naissance  of  its  Causes  in  Ponds  with  Particular  Reference 
to  Fish.  Ibid.,  vol.  XXII,  p.  1 — 38. 

While  experimenting  on  the  modification  of  the  taxonomic  characters  of 
tiger  beetles,  the  author’s  attention  was  called  to  the  striking  relations  of 
these  beetles  to  environmental  complexes  and  he  began  to  study  animal  eco¬ 
logy.  The  first  problem  taken  up  was  the  distribution  of  various  species  of 
fishes  in  several  streams  which  differ  in  character  and  age. 

Ecological  succession  is  defined  as  the  “succession  of  ecological  types 
(physiological  types,  modes  of  life)  over  a  given  locality,  due  to  changes  of 
environmental  conditions  at  that  point”.  That  is,  as  a  stream  grows  older 
and  develops  a  larger  and  larger  valley,  the  physiographic  or  environmental 
conditions  of  a  certain  locality  will  change  and  this  environmental  change 
will  be  accompanied  by  a  change  in  the  fish  fauna.  In  other  words,  fishes 
have  definite  habitat  preferences.  The  first  fishes  to  invade  a  young  stream 
will  be  found  at  the  headwaters  of  older  streams. 

The  same  species  will  be  represented  in  substantially  the  same  order  in 
neighboring  streams  which  possess  a  similar  series  of  environmental  con¬ 
ditions. 

The  author  thinks  that  the  migration  of  conditions  for  breeding  is  an 
important  factor  in  causing  the  breeding  migration  of  fishes,  but  reactions 
outside  the  breeding  season  may  often  be  more  important  than  this  factor. 

For  ecological  succession  in  ponds,  the  author  studied  the  fish  fauna 
of  a  series  of  ponds  which  are  situated  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan.  These  ponds  are  found  between  a  series  of  ridges  representing  old 
beaches  of  the  ancient  Lake  Chicago,  which  existed  in  the  glacial  period  du¬ 
ring  the  retreat  of  the  ice  from  this  region.  These  ridges  were  formed  in 
successive  stages  in  the  history  of  Lalce  Chicago  and  therefore  they,  as  well 
as  the  ponds  between  them,  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  age,  the  ol¬ 
dest  being  furthest  from  Lake  Michigan.  The  age  of  the  ponds  is  determi¬ 
ned  by  their  physiographic  history,  by  the  relative  amount  of  humus  and 
bare  bottom,  and  by  the  quality  and  quantity  of  vegetation.  A  study  of 
the  fishes  inhabiting  these  ponds  shows  that  the  various  species  are  arran¬ 
ged  in  an  orderly  fashion.  That  is,  species  requiring  clean,  pure  water  and 
little  vegetation,  are  found  in  the  youngest  ponds,  while  only  those  species 
will  be  found  in  the  oldest  ponds  which  are  able  to  live  in  the  presence  of 
large  accumulations  of  vegetable  debris  and  dense  growths  of  aquatic  vege¬ 
tation,  and  intermediate  forms  will  be  found  between  these  extremes. 

The  author  reaches  the  conclusion  that  the  horizontal  series  of  fish 
communities  represented  in  these  ponds  is  ecologically  representative  of  the 
succession  of  fish  communities  within  the  older  ponds  —  the  ponds  of  dif¬ 
ferent  ages  thus  representing  stages  in  the  history  of  older  ponds. 

In  the  third  paper  of  this  series  the  author  considers  Ihe  causes  of  the 
ecological  succession  of  fishes  and  other  organisms  in  the  ponds  mentioned 
in  the  second  paper.  For  this  purpose  the  physical  character  of  the  ponds, 
the  substances  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  the  biological  content,  were  stu¬ 
died.  It  was  found  that  size,  depth,  temperature,  and  quantity  of  substan¬ 
ces  naturally  dissolved  in  the  water,  except  oxygen,  did  not  enter  as  factors 


454 


Ijanderreferate  (Nordamerika). 


ill  determining  the  distribution  and  succession  of  fishes.  Likewise  the  qua¬ 
lity  of  the  food  had  no  influence.  Two  sets  of  observations  showed  that 
bacteria  were  more  abundant  in  the  older  ponds  than  in  the  young  ones, 
and  six  sets  of  plankton  catches  gave  larger  numbers  of  Crustacea  for  the 
former. 

The  older  ponds  had  a  larger  amount  of  vegetafion  and  the  decay  of 
this  organic  material  caused  a  decrease  of  the  oxygen  content  of  their  waters. 
The  bottom  water  of  the  oldest  pond  contained  very  little  or  no  dissolved 
oxygen  during  the  breeding  season.  This  would  cause  the  destruction  of 
some  of  the  fish  eggs  deposited  by  some  of  the  fishes  on  the  bottom,  and 
other  aquatic  animals  might  be  affected  in  the  same  way,  hence  animal 
succession. 

224)  House,  J.  L.,  Crustacea  of  Winona  Lake.  Proc.  Ind.  Ac.  Sc.  1910 
(1911),  p.  129—133. 

During  the  months  of  July  and  August,  1908  and  1909,  the  author 
made  a  study  of  the  crustacean  fauna  of  Winona  Lake,  Indiana.  The  ento- 
mostraca  consisted  of  21  species  of  cladocera,  17  species  of  copepods,  one 
of  which  was  parasitic,  and  one  ostracod.  The  larger  Crustacea  consisted 
of  three  species  of  crayfishes,  one  amphipod,  and  two  isopods. 

225)  Turner,  C.  H.,  Ecological  notes  on  the  Cladocera  and  Copepoda 
of  Augusta,  Georgia,  with  descriptions  of  new  or  little  known 
species.  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.  of  St.  Louis,  Dec.  31,  1910,  Vol.  XXIX, 
p.  151—176,  Pis.  XXXVI— XXXVIIL 

Collections  of  micro-crustacea  were  made  regularly  for  a  period  of  more 
than  a  year  in  artificial  ponds,  creeks,  marshes,  and  ditches  in  the  vicinity 
of  Augusta,  Georgia.  The  material  yielded  39  species  in  all,  15  copepoda 
and  24  cladoceia.  The  species,  Diaptomus  augustaensis  and  Bosmia 
reversaspina,  are  descriped  as  new.  Tables  are  given,  showing  the  asso¬ 
ciations  of  the  various  forms,  the  distribution  according  to  temperature,  and 
distribution  according  to  habitat. 

Not  a  single  cladoceran  was  found  which  bore  winter  eggs,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  many  of  the  collections  were  made  in  w^ater  having  a  tempe¬ 
rature  only  a  little  above  zero,  the  water  being  covered  with  a  thin  layer 
of  ice  in  some  instances. 

226)  Parker,  H.  N.,  Note  on  a  growth  of  Sinura  in  Lake  Cochituate. 
Trans.  Amer.  Micro.  Soc.  1911,  Vol.  XXX,  p.  141 — 144. 

The  author  describes  an  unusual  growth  of  Synura  which  was  found 
in  Lake  Cochituate  between  August  6  and  September  21,  1900.  The  or¬ 
ganism  was  not  found  nearer  the  surface  than  4,5  m.  nor  deeper  than  12  m. 
JTie  limitation  to  this  zone  of  the  lake  is  attributed  to  temperature.  No 
specimens  of  Synura  were  found  in  water  which  had  a  temperature  above 
19,2®  C.  nor  below  6,4®.  The  maximum  number  was  at  8  m.  to  9  m.  where 
the  temperature  was  9,2®  to  10,4®.  The  growth  terminated  suddenly  but  the 
cause  of  the  termination  could  not  be  determined. 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


455 


227)  Elrod,  M.  J.,  The  Lakes  of  the  Glacier  National  Park.  Trans. 
Amer.  Micro.  Soc.  December  1910,  Vol.  XXIX,  p.  Ill — 116,  pis.  IV — VI. 
Ibid.  January  1912,  Vol.  XXX,  p.  11—16,  pis.  II— IV. 

Glacier  National  Park  is  situated  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Montana  and 
comprises  a  rugged,  mountainous  country  with  some  peaks  reaching  an  alti¬ 
tude  of  more  than  3  000  meters.  About  250  bodies  of  water,  varying  in 
size  from  mere  tarns  to  those  which  have  a  maximum  length  of  20  kilo¬ 
meters,  are  found  in  this  area.  Some  of  these  lakes  were  visited  by  the 
author  in  1909  and  1910  and  a  general  account  of  the  physical  and  bio¬ 
logical  observations  on  Avalanche  and  Louise  lakes  is  given  in  these  articles. 

228)  Howland,  Ruth  B.,  Migration  of  retinal  pigment  in  the  eyes  of 
Branchipus  gelidus.  Journ.  Exp.  Zool.  1911,  Vol.  XI,  p.  143 — 158. 
Light  and  darkness  produce  a  readjustment  of  the  pigment  granules  in 

the  eye  of  this  crustacean  rather  than  a  proximal  and  distal  migration. 
Changes  in  the  intensity  of  the  light  had  no  effect  on  the  distal  pigment. 
When  exposed  to  bright  sunlight  or  diffuse  daylight,  the  pigment  granules 
collect  closely  around  the  rhabdoms,  while  in  the  dark  the  granules  move 
laterally  and  become  more  evenly  distributed  through  the  cytoplasm  of  the 
retinular  cells.  It  requires  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  hours  to  complete 
this  readjustment.  Variations  in  temperature  from  5,5^  to  17^  have  no  ap¬ 
preciable  effect  on  the  migration  of  pigment.  Branchipus  gelid  us  is  posi¬ 
tively  phototropic  but  when  exposed  to  light  after  remaining  in  the  dark  for 
five  hours  it  is  negative. 

229)  McGinnis,  Mary  0.,  Reactions  of  Branchipus  serratus  to  light, 
heat,  and  gravity.  Jour.  Exp.  Zool.  1911,  Vol.  X,  p.  227^ — 240. 

The  author  found  that  Branchipus  serratus  is  positively  phototropic 

to  lights  varying  in  intensity  from  12  to  280  candle  power  and  they  still 
remained  so  after  being  kept  in  the  dark  from  12  hours  to  six  weeks.  The 
vibrations  of  the  swimming  feet  increase  in  number  with  increase  in  the  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  light,  thus  showing  an  apparent  kinetic  effect  of  light.  The 
eyes  appear  to  be  the  only  sense  organs  capable  of  being  stimulated  by 
light.  The  animal  responds  positively  to  temperatures  of  14®  to  17®  and 
avoids  temperatures  above  or  below  this;  a  temperature  of  28®  is  fatal.  The 
geotropic  reactions  are  positive  in  light  and  negative  in  darkness. 

230)  Shull,  A.  Franklin,  Studies  in  the  life  cycle  of  Hydatina  senta. 
IL  The  role  of  temperatures,  of  chemical  composition  of  the 
medium,  and  internal  factors  upon  the  ratio  of  partheno- 
genetic  to  sexual  forms.  Jour.  Exp.  Zool.,  February  1911,  Vol.  X, 
p.  117 — 166.  III.  Internal  factors  influencing  the  proportion 
of  male-producers.  Ibid.,  February  1912,  Vol.  XII,  p.  283 — 317. 
The  first  paper  gives  an  account  of  the  results  of  a  series  of  experi¬ 
ments  which  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  effect  of  both 
external  and  internal  factors  on  the  relative  number  of  parthenogenetic  and 
sexual  individuals  produced.  With  respect  to  external  factors,  the  author 

Revue  d.  ges.  Hydrobiol.  u.  Hydrogr.  Bd.  V.  H.  4.  30 


456 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


found  that  the  proportion  of  male-producers  was  practically  the  same  at  the 
average  temperatures  of  20^  and  24,5®  C.  but  at  10®  the  proportion  of  male- 
producers  was  decidedly  higher  in  many  cases  than  at  20®.  In  one  case  it 
was  lower.  The  appearance  of  male-producers  may  be  wholly  prevented  by 
employing  a  solution  of  horse-manure  and  boiling  this  solution  does  not 
affect  the  results.  The  following  substances  reduce  the  proportion  of  male- 
producers:  Urea,  amonium  hydroxid,  amonium  chlorid,  amonium  carbonate, 
amonium  nitrate,  beef  extract,  and  creatin.  The  effect  of  a  high  degree  of 
alkalinity  was  not  very  marked  and  the  results  were  not  uniform  but  it 
seemed  to  decrease  the  number  of  male-producers  sometimes. 

With  respect  to  internal  factors,  it  was  found  that  two  pure  lines,  en¬ 
tirely  unrelated,  gave  a  constant  difference  in  the  proportion  of  male-produ¬ 
cers,  even  when  exposed  to  the  same  external  conditions.  When  a  member 
of  one  of  these  lines  was  crossed  with  a  member  of  the  other,  the  offspring 
gave  a  higher  proportion  of  male-producers,  no  difference  which  of  the  ori¬ 
ginal  lines  furnished  the  female  parent.  The  zygote  resulting  from  the  mating 
of  a  member  of  a  pure  line  derived  from  the  crosses  with  a  member  of  one 
of  the  original  parent  lines,  gave  rise  to  a  line  of  offspring  having  a  pro¬ 
portion  of  male-producers  intermediate  between -those  of  the  two  parent  lines 
of  this  zygote. 

The  second  paper  deals  with  internal  factors  exclusively.  The  author 
found  that  long  continued  parthenogenesis  results  in  a  progressive  decrease 
of  male-producers  in  some  lines  of  these  rotifers,  perhaps  in  all,  and  a  pro¬ 
gressive  decrease  in  the  size  of  family  of  some  lines.  There  seems  to  be  no 
correlation  between  decrease  in  size  of  family  and  decrease  in  proportion  of 
male-producers,  however.  The  time  required  for  the  hatching  of  fertilized 
eggs  varies  from  a  few  days  to  many  weeks,  but  the  length  of  time  does 
not  seem  to  be  correlated  with  the  proportion  of  male-producers  in  the  par- 
thenogenetic  line  derived  from  the  egg.  Measured  by  size  of  family,  eggs 
requiring  a  long  time  to  hatch  do  not  produce  as  vigorous  offspring  as  early 
hatching  eggs.  All  fertilized  eggs  produce  females  which  are  all  female  pro¬ 
ducers.  Whether  a  female  derived  from  a  parthenogenetic  egg  is  to  become 
a  male-producer  or  a  female-producer  is  irrevocably  determined  during  the 
growth  period  of  the  egg,  as  far  as  manure  solution  is  concerned.  Sex  is 
determined  during  the  previous  generation. 

231)  Wodsedalek,  J.  E.,  Phototactic  reactions  and  their  reversal  in 
the  May-fly  nymphs  Heptagenia  interpunctata  (Say).  Biol.  Bull. 
1911,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  265—271. 

The  author  found  that  practically  all  nymphs  are  negatively  phototactic 
to  daylight  and  to  the  light  obtained  from  a  sixteen  candlepower  lamp,  but 
different  individuals  vary  in  the  intensity  of  their  negative  response. 

Various  chemicals  changed  the  response  to  light  from  negative  to  positive. 
Acids  were  most  effective,  salts  less  so,  and  alkalies  are  least  effective  in 
reversing  the  response  to  light. 

232)  Coker,  R.  E.  and  Surbar,  T.,  A  note  on  the  metamorphosis  of  the 
musselLami)silislaevissimus.  Biol.  Bull.  191 1,  Vol.  XX,  p.  129 — 182, 1  pi. 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


457 


The  glochidium  of  Lampsilis  laevissimus  belongs  to  the  “axe-head” 
type.  The  larva  increases  markedly  in  size  and  undergoes  a  change  in  form 
during  the  parasitic  stage. 

233)  Isely,  F.  B.,  Preliminary  note  on  the  ecology  of  the  early 
Juvenile  life  of  the  Unionidae.  Biol.  Bull.  1911,  Vol.  XX,  p.  77 
bis  80. 

The  most  favorable  environment  for  the  growth  and  early  development 
of  the  Uniondae  must  possess  the  following  factors:  An  abundance  of  dis¬ 
solved  oxygen,  sufficient  food,  fishes  which  make  suitable  hosts,  and  freedom 
from  shifting  sand  and  accumulations  of  silt.  i 

234)  Galloway,  T.  W.,  The  common  fresh-water  Oligocheta  of  the 
United  States.  Trans.  Amer.  Micro.  Soc.  October  1911,  Vol.  XXX, 
p.  285  —  317. 

The  autor  gives  directions  for  collecting,  rearing,  and  making  permanent 
preparations  of  oligochetes.  These  are  followed  by  a  description  of  the  various 
structures  used  in  distinguising  the  different  species  and  by  synoptical  keys 
to  the  common  genera  and  species. 

235)  Bean,  B.  A.  and  Weed  C.  A.,  Notes  on  the  coloration  of  fishes. 
Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  of  Washington  1911,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  69 — 76. 

The  authors  describe  the  various  color  changes  made  by  several  species 
of  fishes  which  were  kept  in  aquaria  for  exhibition  purposes. 

236)  Cockerell,  T.  D.  A.,  The  scales  of  Freshwater  Fishes.  Biol.  Bull. 
1911,  Vol.  XX,  p.  367—376. 

The  author  studied  the  form  and  sculpture  of  the  scales  of  a  number 
of  freshwater  fishes  representing  various  groups.  He  found  that  generally 
the  scales  possess  characters  which  are  of  considerable  taxonomic  importance, 
but  frequently  the  characters  are  deceptive  owing  to  convergence,  individual 
variations  and  difference  in  age. 

237)  Jordan,  D.  S.  and  Everraann,  B.  W.,  A  review  of  the  Salmo- 
noid  Fishes  of  the  Great  Lakes  with  notes  on  the  White- 
fishes  of  other  regions.  Bull.  Bur.  Fish.  1911,  Vol.  XXIX,  p.  1 — 42, 
VII  col.  pis. 

This  review  of  the  salmonoid  fishes  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  based  on  a 
large  collection  of  material  obtained  in  1908  and  1909  during  investigations 
by  the  International  Fisheries  Commission.  Descriptions  of  the  various  species 
found  in  the  different  lakes  are  given  and  a  synoptical  key  is  given  for  the 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  Leucichthys.  The  material  shows  that  each 
lake  has  one  or  more  species  of  the  group  called  lake  herrings  or  ciscoes 
peculiar  to  itself. 

238)  Seal,  W.  P.,  Breeding  Habits  of  the  Viviparous  Fishes  Gam- 
busia  holbrooki  and  Heterandria  formosa.  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  of 
Washington  1911,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  91—96,  1  pi. 


458 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


Specimens  of  these  small  fishes  were  kept  in  aquaria  and  their  breeding 
liabits  were  observed  for  several  seasons.  During  the  mating  period  the  female 
resents  the  advances  of  the  male  and  attacks  him  vigorously,  these  attacks 
sometimes  proving  fatal.  The  females  give  birth  to  young  at  intervals  which 
may  vary  from  several  minutes  to  as  many  hours.  The  number  of  young 
extruded  each  time  varies  from  two  to  12.  Two  generations  may  be  pro¬ 
duced  in  one  season. 

239)  P.,  Papers  on  Freshwater  Aquiculture  Presented  Be¬ 

fore  the  Fourth  International  Fishery  Congress.  Washington. 

Bull.  Bur.  Fish.  1910,  Vol.  XXVlll. 

The  various  papers  relating  to  freshwater  aquiculture  cover  a  rather  wide 
range  of  subjects,  treating  more  particularly  of  the  habits,  propagation,  food, 
parasites,  and  diseases  of  fishes,  and  the  propagation  of  mussels.  With  respect 
to  the  habits  of  fishes  Reighard  gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  ap¬ 
paratus  and  methods  employed  by  himself  in  studying  various  species.  He 
describes  a  reflecting  water-glass  which  is  used  in  observing  the  fishes,  and 
a  reflecting  camera  which  is  used  for  photographing  objects  under  water. 
Tlie  second  part  of  the  paper  consists  of  an  illustrative  example  of  the 
method  of  observation,  being  an  account  of  the  breeding  habits  of  the  horned 
dace  (Semotilus  atromaculatus).  The  male  builds  the  nest  and  guards 
it.  The  female  may  deposit  all  her  eggs  in  one  nest  or  she  may  deposit 
them  in  several.  During  the  spawning  act  the  male  throws  the  female  into 
a  vertical  position  with  her  head  up  and  her  body  is  encircled  by  his.  This 
spawning  embrace  lasts  for  a  fraction  of  a  second,  during  which  time  from 
25  to  50  eggs  are  laid  and  fertilized.  When  the  male  has  completed  his 
nest  he  deserts  it  and  it  rapidly  becomes  covered  with  silt  and  is  not  easily 
distinguished  from  the  surrounding  bottom. 

Gill’s  paper  is  a  plea  for  observation  of  the  habits  of  fishes.  He  calls 
attention  to  a  number  of  errors  that  have  been  made  by  undue  generalizations 
and  points  out  that  one  cannot  assume  that  closely  related  forms  have  si¬ 
milar  habits. 

Vincent,  fish  culturist  of  the  Trocadero  Aquarium  at  Paris ,  describes  a 
number  of  devices  for  use  in  fish  hatcheries  and  aquaria.  He  gives  descrip¬ 
tions  of  an  artificial  pond  with  a  siphoid  outlet  for  regulating  the  height  of 
tlie  water,  apparatus  for  cleaning  hatching  and  rearing  troughs  as  well  as 
ponds  and  aquaria,  an  oxygenating  and  vacuum  producing  apparatus,  and  a 
scraper  for  preparing  fish  food. 

Seal  reports  that  experiments  with  various  species  of  fishes  show  that 
a  combination  of  the  goldfish,  the  roach  or  shiner,  two  species  of  sunfishes 
wliich  live  among  plants,  and  top  minnows  would  probably  prove  to  be  more 
effective  than  other  species  in  preventing  the  growth  of  mosquito  larvae, 
especially  of  the  genus  Anopheles  in  pools  and  ponds  used  for  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  ornamental  aquatic  plants. 

In  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  best  food  for 
young  salmonoid  fishes,  Atkins  found  that  the  young  of  Atlantic  salmon 
gained  much  faster  in  weight  when  fed  on  fly  larvae  than  when  fed  on 
cliopped  meat  (chiefly  butcher’s  offal),  the  difference  being  53  per  cent,  in 


Landerreferate  (Nordamerika). 


459 


favor  of  the  former  food.  A  second  test  showed  a  difference  of  27  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  the  fly  larvae.  A  similar  comparison  between  several  lots  of  the 
young  landlocked  salmon  showed  only  a  slight  difference  in  favor  of  the  fly 
larvae.  Several  commercial  foods  were  tested  and  were  found  to  be  unfit 
for  the  young  of  salmonoid  fishes.  Experiments  on  18  lots  of  brook  trout 
showed  that  those  fed  on  chopped  hearts  and  lungs  of  hogs  grew  most  ra¬ 
pidly.  Those  fed  on  chopped  fresh  herring  came  next,  and  those  fed  partially 
on  rye  meal  gained  least. 

A  new  method  of  packing  fish  for  transportation  to  market  is  described 
by  Soiling.  The  fishes  are  dressed,  thoroughly  washed  in  order  to  remove 
all  blood,  and  allowed  to  drain  a  few  minutes.  Then  they  are  wrapped  in 
a  special  vegetable  parchment  paper  and  placed  on  ice.  Experiments  show 
that  halibut  so  treated  will  remain  fresh  and  firm  and  retain  their  full  flavor 
for  3 1  days. 

Franke  found  that  Costia  necatrix  in  salmonoid  fry  is  prevented  by 
aboundant  and  constant  aeration  of  the  water.  Costia  spreads  more  rapidly 
when  the  fry  are  crowded  and  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  above 
10^  C. 

Vincent  states  that  various  species  of  trout  fry  are  especially  subject 
to  disease  of  the  gills  and  frequently  are  subject  to  the  epidemic  known  as 
staggers.  The  most  effective  measures  in  both  cases  are  those  of  prevention, 
the  best  of  which  is  perfect  cleanliness  of  both  water  and  equipment. 

Spencer  reports  that  fungous  growths  have  been  killed  on  hundreds  of 
fishes,  belonging  to  many  species,  in  the  New  York  Aquarium  by  the  q-ppli- 
cation  of  hydrogen  dioxide.  This  substance  produced  cures  when  treatments 
with  salt  solutions  were  unsuccessful. 

Ward  found  that  the  Sebago  salmon  is  infested  with  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  internal  parasites,  a  total  of  but  nine  species  at  most. 
Tlie  various  forms  manifest  a  striking  freshwater  aspect.  A  new  species  of 
trematode,  Azygia  sebago,  is  described. 

Scott  found  that,  when  fishes  were  transferred  from  sea  water  to  fresh 
water,  there  was  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  corpuscles  per  cubic  millimeter, 
a  lowering  of  the  haemoglobin  percentage,  a  lowering  of  the  specific  gravity, 
and  a  lessening  of  the  depression  of  the  freezing  point,  all  of  which  showed 
a  dilution  of  the  blood.  When  put  into  sea  water  whose  specific  gravity 
had  been  raised  by  the  addition  of  sea  salt,  there  was  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  corpuscles,  a  loss  in  weight,  and  an  increase  in  the  specific  gra¬ 
vity  of  the  blood. 

A  series  of  experiments  performed  by  Marsh  led  him  to  the  conclusion 
that,  for  practical  cultural  purposes,  a  certain  minimum  of  natural  dissolved 
solids  is  necessary  to  make  water  suitable  for  fishes  and  that  there  is  doubt¬ 
less  a  maximum  also,  but  a  wide  adaptability  must  exist.  Substances  not 
commonly  found  in  natural  waters  are  usually  unfavorable  in  their  action 
on  fishes,  such  as  copper  sulphate,  silver  nitrate,  zinc,  lead,  aluminum  and 
even  tin.  Pishes  are  very  susceptible  to  mineral  acids. 

Birge  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  annual  cycle  of  changes  in  the  gases 
dissolved  in  the  waters  of  Wisconsin  lakes,  particular  attention  being  given 
to  the  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide.  It  is  pointed  out  that  a  knowledge  of 


460 


Hydrographische  Einzelreferate. 


lacustrine  physics  and  chemistry  is  Just  as  necessary  to  the  best  utilization 
of  the  waters  of  lakes  as  a  knowledge  of  soil  physics  and  chemistry  is  to 
the  best  agricultural  use  of  land. 

Three  papers  discuss  plans  for  promoting  the  whitefish  production  of 
the  Great  Lakes.  The  chief  proposals  made  for  accomplishing  this  end  are 
extensive  artificial  propagation  and  a  closed  season  covering  the  period  when 
most  unripe  fish  are  caught.  Only  about  one  per  cent,  of  the  whitefish 
eggs  are  fertilized  when  they  are  deposited  under  natural  conditions.  This 
means  an  enormous  loss  which  can  be  prevented  by  artificial  fertilization 
and  rearing. 

Hoek  gives  a  brief  history  of  the  propogation  and  protection  of  the 
Rhine  salmon.  Spawning  takes  place  in  November  and  December,  but  the 
different  sizes  of  salmon  enter  the  river  and  begin  the  ascent  at  different 
seasons.  As  a  result  they  are  found  ascending  the  stream  during  practically 
every  month  of  the  year.  Very  few  salmon  escape  and  reach  the  spawning 
grounds  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  natural  way.  Through  an  international 
agreement,  however,  the  various  governments  concerned  resort  to  artificial 
propogation. 

Matsubara  describes  the  various  varieties  of  goldfish  that  are  culti¬ 
vated  in  Japan  and  gives  the  methods  employed  in  rearing  them. 

Lefevre  and  Curtis  give  the  results  of  some  investigations  which  were 
made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  practicability  of  cultivating  fresh¬ 
water  mussels  artificially.  The  breeding  habits  and  life  history  of  various 
species  of  mussels  were  studied.  Many  experiments  on  infecting  various 
species  of  fishes  with  the  glochidia  show  that  five  species  out  of  the  total 
number  tried  serve  as  excellent  hosts  —  a  single  specimen  of  these  fishes  8  cm. 
to  10  cm.  long  being  able  to  carry  a  thousand  glochidia  through  the  para¬ 
sitic  period  successfully.  The  results  showed  that  various  species  of  mussels 
are  capable  of  artificial  propogation  and  a  biological  station  has  been  esta¬ 
blished  by  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  for  the  purpose  of  propogating  species 
which  have  a  commercial  value. 


1 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLIN0I8-URBANA 


III  I  Hill 

N30112104613051A 


